Thus, because of selective attention and selective memory, it sure seems to be true. I love my TV (TV viewing). The results were clear: White students performed equally well regardless of whether they believed the test was being used to measure their intelligence. I could say that he taught me all I know about social psychology, but that would be a gross understatement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28, 218–224. 42. Indeed, the random assignment of participants to conditions is the crucial difference between the experimental method and nonexperimental approaches. The children in the severe-threat condition had good external reasons for not playing with the toy—and they therefore had no 222 The Social Animal need to find additional reasons; consequently, they continued to like the toy. Observations of parents and children in the real world have demonstrated time and again that parents who use severe punishment tend to produce children who are extremely aggressive or who, as adults, favor violent means of obtaining personal and political ends.100 This aggression usually takes place outside the home, where the child is distant from the punishing agent. Boundary patrols and intergroup encounters in wild chimpanzees. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 932–944. Let’s go back to our previous example: If the father of the fair-haired daughter is encouraged to believe (by the statements and tactics of a governor, a mayor, a school-board chairman, or a local sheriff ) that there’s a way out of integration, he will feel no need to reexamine his negative beliefs about blacks. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 656–666. How could this happen? The people who turned the noise-maker up to the highest decibel levels turned out to be those who had scored high on measures Self-Justification 239 of both self-esteem and narcissism. There is good evidence that this is a general phenomenon. One of these cultural differences is nicely illustrated by the following pieces of folk wisdom: In America, “the squeaky wheel gets the grease”; in Japan, “the nail that stands out gets pounded down.” This general impression was confirmed by Rod Bond and Peter Smith. I am the worst choice you could ever make for the Presidency!” And even then his following would say, “Now there’s an honest man for you. In this instance Sam was not expressing a feeling, he was interpreting Harry’s behavior and judging it. The people experiencing dissonance show the same decrement in performance as people in other uncomfortable drive states like extreme hunger and thirst. The latter situation, however, involves confronting a highly probable event that is life-threatening and largely uncontrollable. They have typically involved vivid descriptions of the dangers of unsafe sex and the ravages of the disease. A Definition What is social psychology? First, most people seem to have some understanding of stereotypes; they seem reluctant to apply them in the absence of solid data. It can be helpful to think of blacks or Latinos as stupid or dangerous if it justifies depriving them of an education or denying them parole, and it is helpful to think of women as being biologically predisposed toward domestic drudgery if a male-dominated society wants to keep them tied to a vacuum cleaner. Ms. or Mr. President, which program do you favor? How bad would you feel if you got a D on your term paper and how long would the bad feeling last? Into this “prison” he brought a group of normal, mature, stable, intelligent, young men. Cohen, G. T., Aronson, J., Steele, C. (2000). Stevenson, H., Keen, R., & Knights, J. She made this statement even though she was well aware of the fact that at least two of the victims were not participating in the demonstration but were peacefully walking across campus at the time of the shooting. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. They were into voodoo. On the other hand, if he believes his opponent has been playing dirty, he might become angry and go out of his way to hurt his opponent, even if doing so does not increase his opportunity to tackle the ball carrier. ), Television and social behavior (Vol. The primacy of your speech will interfere with the audience’s ability to learn your opponent’s arguments; with the election several days away, differential effects due to memory are negligible. 6. Among the participants with high or moderate self-esteem, those who saw the films on the large screen were much more likely to take subsequent protective action than were those who saw the films on the small screen. 73. Self-serving biases in the attribution process: A reexamination of the fact or fiction question. Journal of Social Psychology, 108, 213–220. When lovers express their feelings without judging the other person as being wrong, insensitive, or uncaring, escalation rarely follows. Journal of Comparative Psychology, 22, 383–419. 7. What eventually emerged was that Sam owned up to a feeling of envy: Sam wished he had Harry’s easy charm and popularity. Those subjects primed with the extremely hostile persons rated Donald as less hostile than those who received the gentle primes. Researchers have found evidence for two explanations—either of which can be true, depending on the circumstances. It is interesting to note that the people in this condition behaved with greater independence than those people who were oriented toward being accurate but were not held accountable. Indeed, as Irving Janis and his associates have discovered, people who have been allowed to eat desirable food while reading a persuasive communication are more influenced by what they read than are people in a control (noneating) group.59 Similarly, research by Richard Petty and his colleagues suggests that being in a good mood can make people more vulnerable to persuasion.60 Geoffrey Cohen and his colleagues61 found that people who have recently received self-esteem–affirming feedback (such as learning they are well liked) are also more receptive to being persuaded by a communication. The young men and women who were led to anticipate future social rejection scored significantly lower on the IQ test than those in the other two conditions. This finding emerges from a subsequent experiment by Karen Dion.35 Dion asked several women to examine reports of rather severe classroom disturbances, apparently written by a teacher. Rather, we distort it in a way that fits our preconceived notions. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 585–589. Each side justifies what they do as merely evening the score. The next step is to make a guess as to why that happens; this guess is our taking a stab at uncovering the “lawful relationship” we mentioned above. There is no simple solution to this problem. (1994). She came to believe what she was saying. The experimenter then retired to the next room through an unlocked collapsible curtain, saying she would return when they finished the questionnaire. They reconcile this by concluding that the Islamic world has fallen behind the rest of the world either because the Europeans, Americans, and Israelis stole something from the Muslims, or because the Europeans, Americans, and Israelis are deliberately retarding the progress of Muslims, or because those who are leading the Muslim world have drifted away from the true faith and are behaving in un-Islamic ways, but are being kept in power by America . All those who were allowed to vote did, indeed, vote for the termination of the shocks; some of the voting participants succeeded in terminating the shocks, while others did not. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage. But what if we experienced physiological arousal in the absence of an appropriate stimulus? In a given election year, the combined cost of congressional campaigns now exceeds one billion dollars.12 Effectiveness of Media Appeals The broad question is this: How credible and effective are obvious attempts to package and sell products (toothpaste, aspirin, presidential candidates) through the mass media? “I think it must be aggressive feelings that I’m experiencing.” There is a sense in which watching violence makes the feeling of anger more easily available and makes an aggressive response more likely simply through priming. I need some reassurance; do you still find me attractive? 149–174). The subjects had the prerogative to adjust the intensity of the shocks. The person who is easiest to brainwash is the person whose beliefs are based on slogans that have never been seriously challenged. ), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. Many definitions are possible. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 13, 279–301. Berns, G. S., Chappelow, J., Zink, C. F., Pagnoni, G., Martin-Skurski, M. E., & Richards, J. I suggested that an alternative method of reducing the dissonance associated with failure might involve making one’s definition of success less stringent—such as settling for partial success. A more general study that tracked the progress of 135 students who made New Year’s resolutions supports this observation.7 Individuals who broke their resolutions—such as to quit smoking, lose weight, or exercise more—initially felt bad about themselves for failing but, after a short time, succeeded in downplaying the importance of the resolution. It depends on which course of action will serve most to reduce dissonance under the circumstances. New York: Plenum. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 3, 278–298. There is. This finding is consistent with previous research; in itself, it is obvious and not very interesting. It turned out that his scream had been one of surprise caused by a relatively harmless flare-up in his gasoline stove. Here’s how the experiment was performed. But, occasionally, it can be disillusioning, as well. (1967). These suicides should show up on official records as single-car, one-passenger fatal accidents. In one experiment,60 white students were instructed to administer a series of electric shocks to another student as part of a study of learning. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18, 1046–1066. Shortly after these crimes, both Hennis and the police received a convincing series of anonymous letters thanking Hennis for taking the rap for the Eastburn murders. Disturbed by the political opposition and an- Liking, Loving, and Interpersonal Sensitivity 365 imosity of a member of the Pennsylvania state legislature, Franklin set out to win him over. In early psychoanalytic theorizing, an obsessive-compulsive personality was known as anal retentive and was believed to be the direct result of early and severe toilet-training practices. But this is an illusion. There is a reason why common sense leads some people to believe that a great deal of fear leads to inaction: It does—for certain people, under certain conditions. Intimacy, Authenticity, and Communication Although honest communication with loved ones has beneficial effects, the process is not as easy as it might sound. The first is that the experimental method is the best way to understand a complex phenomenon. By the same token, once Pentagon officials intensified the bombing of North Vietnam, they could not undo it. For example, the following are actual written reports given by drivers involved in automobile accidents.102 As can be seen, the self-serving bias is much in evidence. (1978). My guess is that he will begin to reexamine his beliefs about blacks. The social animal 1. Biek, M., Wood, W., & Chaiken, S. (1996) Working knowledge, cognitive processing, and attitudes: On the determinants of bias. One thing they suggest is that the most zealous opponents of a given position are not those who have always been distant from that position. 30. Alice falls into a stony silence. More than 200,000 people were killed and countless thousands suffered severe injuries. War and peace. Aggression is an optional strategy. Into the breach stepped the Department of Homeland Security and the Attorney General of the United States. This results in a fragile plateau that appears stable and positive but that can be devastated by a sudden shift in sentiment. An example may help to clarify this point. Sally might switch to a filter-tipped brand and delude herself into believing that the filter traps the cancer-producing materials. They found that the women perceived more similarity between members in other sororities than within their own. Thomas, M. H., Horton, R., Lippincott, E., & Drabman, R. (1977). Gradually, you will convince 236 The Social Animal yourself that the person is an insufferable, self-centered bore (with bad breath!) The autobiography of Benjamin Franklin (pp. The participants might reasonably assume, then, that no scientist would issue orders that would result in the death or injury of a human as a part of his experiment. Recent research tells us why: The pain we receive always feels more intense than the pain we inflict. Because they were paying attention, Prejudice 351 they began to see things in him they had never seen before. Fortunately for Hennis, his story did not end on death row. Leiden, the Netherlands: E. J. Brill. The closer the relationship and the greater the past history of invariant esteem and reward, the more devastating is the withdrawal of that person’s esteem. 5. Jack Brehm78 reported a series of experiments in which people were deprived of either food or water for long periods. Very few of those who read the identical communication attributed to Pravda shifted their opinions in the direction of the communication. 34. More recently, it has become clear that the torture and humiliation administered to Iraqi prisoners of war in Abu Ghraib prison was not an isolated incident.42 Although military leaders were quick to blame this behavior on a few “bad apples” —and court-martialed them—the facts in the case suggest that Abu Ghraib was indeed another instance of obedience to authority. The increase in liking among children in the jigsaw classroom crossed ethnic and racial barriers, resulting in a sharp decrease in prejudice and stereotyping. As we have seen in Chapter 4, stereotyping is not necessarily an intentional act of abuse; nor is it always negative. 169–178). Milgram, S. (1965). Let’s take a closer look. Physical attractiveness and sociometric choice in nursery school children. Davis, L. (1990). On a more general note, I would suggest that the ethics of any experiment would seem less problematic when the results tell us something pleasant or flattering about human nature than when they tell us something we’d rather not know. On survey after survey, the percentages of people willing to admit that they hold prejudices toward women, blacks, gay men, lesbians, and other minorities have been dropping sharply.2 To mention just one indicator of this trend, in 1963 almost 80 percent of our white citizens said they would move out of their own neighborhood if African Americans began moving in. The individual who believes that he or she is the cause of good things will try harder and persist longer to achieve difficult goals. 37. Following TV presidential debates, pundits usually discuss which of the candidates acted “more presidential.” One very successful candidate who did a great job acting presidential was a former film and TV actor named Ronald Reagan. See also Intimacy; Love communal vs. exchange, 387–388 communication in, 395–403. No one “forced” the youngsters to like one another; they were actually choosing to relate to one another across racial and ethnic boundaries. This is called a secondary gain. This would result in an actual change in attitude rather than mere compliance. Increasing the effectiveness of energy auditors: A field experiment. Why do people believe in astrology? But there can be a downside to this kind of exposure, as well. For example, the attribution “this criminal is a fiend” will result in a policy of spending more money on bigger and stronger prisons and doling out longer prison sentences. (1980). In an interesting set of experiments, Ronnie Janoff-Bulman and her coworkers49 demonstrated the power of the hindsight bias in increasing subjects’ beliefs that rape victims were responsible for their own victimization. However, approval from a stranger is a gain and, according to gain-loss theory, should result in more positive behavior. He discovered that immediate desegregation was far more effective than gradual desegregation. AIDS stigma and contact with persons with AIDS: Effects of direct and vicarious contact. The self-serving attributional bias: Beyond self-presentation. Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state. Such opinions are primarily cognitive—that is, they take place in the head rather than in the 114 The Social Animal gut. 109. Morever, it is arrogant of any scientist to decide that he or she has the right or the skill to provide people with a therapeutic experience without their prior permission to do so. No. Let us look at the conditions under which we are most likely to engage in ego-defensive attributions. If people were asked to name the most important characteristic of a laboratory experiment, the great majority would say “control.” And this is a major advantage. In Los Angeles in 2004, a black firefighter named Tennie Pierce was served dog food in his spaghetti by fellow firefighters, including his station captain, who laughed as Pierce ate it. See Politics Emotion components of, 32–33 definition of, 32 in persuasion, 84–90 social influence and, 32–34 Emotional contagion, 64–66 Empathy, 297–298 jigsaw technique and, 353 prejudice and, 353 Environmental influences, 9–11 Equal-status contact, prejudice and, 340–341, 345 Eros, 255–256 Escalation, of violence, 265–267 Ethical aspects, of experiments, 56–57, 422–429 Ethnic prejudice. In one condition, the students merely composed the arguments. See also Credibility discrepancy size and, 94, 97–102 distraction and, 105 effectiveness of, 67–71, 75–108, 108–115. Some direct evidence for the importance of irrevocability comes from a clever study of the cognitive gyrations of gamblers at a race track. The aim is to get kids to demand that their parents buy them the products they have seen in the commercials—and it seems to work. Janis, I. J., Kaye, D., & Kirschner, P. (1965). 6. Freud, S. (1948). The context they set can influence our perceptions and judgments, lulling us into decisions that we might not otherwise make. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Those who thought they were the only listener were far more likely to leave their room and try to help than were those who thought others were listening, too. The effect of severity of threat on the devaluation of forbidden behavior. See Obedience Dispositional prejudice, 333–335 Dispositional view, 10 Dissent, 14–15. However, if some of the participants think the arousal they are experiencing is due to the pill, they won’t need to alter their attitudes to feel better about themselves. Some subjects heard the first confederate call the black lawyer a “nigger,” while other subjects heard the confederate call him a “shyster.” In both conditions, the second confederate expressed agreement with the first confederate’s derogatory opinion of the black lawyer. But how can we proceed? 47. Psychological Review, 80, 237–251. need not be taken seriously.” When an unattractive girl was pictured as the culprit in exactly the same situation described in exactly the same way, a typical respondent said, “I think the child would be quite bratty and would probably be a problem to teachers. Rosenthal, R., & Jacobson, L. (1968). Thus, the appearance of authority—as potently symbolized by a uniform—can lend legitimacy to a demand, thereby generating high rates of compliance. 3. New York: Vintage Books. 46. I have had to be more a “news analyst” than a “reporter.” For example, there are many controversies that I did not fully describe. . Confronting children’s fright responses to mass media. Premise 2: If production is important, then it is a mistake to have Negroes for foremen and leaders over Whites. I realized that the results may simply have meant that people are more persuasible on topics they aren’t curious or knowledgeable about. In L. Berkowitz (Ed. Such a situation was produced in an experiment performed by Keith Davis and Edward Jones.56 They persuaded students to volunteer to help with an experiment: Each student’s participation consisted of watching another student being interviewed and then, on the basis of this observation, telling the other student he believed him to be shallow, untrustworthy, and dull. 83–96). New York: Doubleday. The social contract and discourses. Zimbardo, P., Weisenberg, M., Firestone, I., & Levy, B. Whether it succeeds in Human Aggression 255 its goal or not, it is still aggression. But the captions under the photos often characterized their behavior differently depending on their race. 460 The Social Animal 30. (2000). 60. As you know, Snyder and Swann37 found that the nature of the question helps determine the response. Christian Crandall and Amy Eshleman suggest that most people struggle with the conflict between their urge to express prejudice and their need to maintain a positive self-concept (as someone who is not a bigot), both in their own eyes, as well as the eyes of others. Lepper, M. R., Keavney, M., & Drake, M.. (1996). Chapter 3 Mass Communication, Propaganda, and Persuasion 1. More subtle but no less important ethical problems result when participants confront some aspect of themselves that is not pleasant or positive. Essentially, the story made it clear that a rape victim who chooses to press charges against her attacker runs the risk of undergoing an ordeal that may be as harrowing as the rape itself. Now it was time to give each of the people in the various experimental conditions a different experience—an experience the experimenters believed would make a difference. Several studies indicate that a good predictor of prejudice is whether a person’s social status is low or declining. But it just so happened that she was administering her test in the same room Freedman had used for his experiment—the room where the same toys were casually scattered about. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World. Is Aggression Useful? In other words, his external justification (in terms of the severity of the threat) is minimal; therefore, he must add his own to justify his restraint. For half of them, it pictured a very attractive woman; for the others, it pictured a relatively unattractive woman. Would they treat you with less warmth than they treated heterosexuals? Members of this group showed a much smaller tendency to change their opinions than did the members of a control group whose opinions had not been previously subjected to the mild attack. . Individuation can help prevent the overuse of a given stereotype or heuristic. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. The world will look different to different people, depending . But when withholding help seems more reasonable—such as when the person asking for help is “lazy”—people can continue to act in prejudiced ways while protecting their images of themselves as unprejudiced. Of course, most of us would like to believe that our memories contain only the truth about the past. How to talk dirty and influence people (pp. Still, almost 90 percent of the second-car drivers tooted their horns when the light 298 The Social Animal turned green. 90. What percentage of these people continued to administer shocks to the very end of the experiment? See also Punishment self-justification and, 204–207, 226–232 Criminal trials death qualification procedure and, 34–35 eyewitness testimony in, 148–151 Criticism, constructive, 401–403 Cruelty. Deaux, K. (1972). Apparently, seeing a person on crutches evoked an empathic response; the feeling of empathy overwhelmed the desire to be aggressive, and the percentage of people honking their horns decreased dramatically.111 Empathy is an important phenomenon. European Journal of Social Psychology, 19, 243–250. Rather, as the earlier experiment indicates, it was those children who had every reason to expect to play with the toys who experienced frustration when that expectancy was thwarted; this thwarting was what caused the children to behave destructively. In J. Why did these bystanders fail to help? 15. In reality, however, only about 20 percent had noticed. Under these circumstances, many individuals will block all thoughts of death, disease, and condoms out of their minds, adopting a posture of denial. As I mentioned a moment ago, external justification can and does come in a variety of forms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 63–78. One of the major problems with observational data like these is that the observer has no control over who the people in the situation are. 390 The Social Animal Although poets and philosophers have been struggling with these questions for centuries, they have yet to be answered in a fashion that all can agree on. Finally, neuroscientists have recently shown that cognitive dissonance is unpleasant and that restoring consonance brings pleasure. They treated the violence in a lackadaisical manner. 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